Venus essays

Venus essays Venus is one of the brightest objects in the sky, so it is clearly visible to the naked eye. It can be tricky to see because it is always near the Sun. So it rises and sets with the Sun each day. Venus rotates "backwards," so the Sun rises in the west and sets in the east. Ancient civilizations believed they were actually two different objects, so they called the one, which rose the Morning Star, and the one, which sets the Evening Star. Astronomers figured out that it was one object. Venus formed about 4 Billion years ago. At the conclusion of forming, it continued to be hit with leftover material. Venus warmed from the inside and separated into layers. Since Venus is so close to the sun, the atmosphere formed differently than Earths. Venus is known as earths sister planet. In some ways they are very similar. Venus is a little smaller than Earth (95% of Earths diameter and 80% Earths mass). Both have few craters indicating young surfaces. From the similarities, it was thought that below its dense clouds, Venus might be very earth like and might even have life. However, with more detailed study, Venus is different than Earth in many ways. Venus has a slow rotational period, single plate surface, lack of a satellite, extremely weak magnetic field, lack of water, high surface temperature, and dense atmosphere. These are the differences but we still have a lot to learn about our Sister Planet. The interior of Venus is probably similar to Earths interior. Venus, like Earth, is one of the terrestrial planets and is made of rock and metal. It probably has a partly molten metallic core, a rocky mantle, and a crust. The surface of Venus consists of 2 large continents which are Ishtar Terra, found near the north pole of Venus and Aphrodite Terra, found near the equator of Venus. It has mountain ranges, and a few large islands. There are craters that show, liquid once f ...

Glory The Movie

Glory The Movie GLORY Film review by Sean Lagace Ethnic Studies The ultimate heroic legend that contributed more than just a live is without doubt, Colonel Robert of the Fearless 54th regiment. Throughout young Robert's life he guided his path through the eyes and dreams of his notable father, but this unexpexted young man did not expect such a duty as well as honor to the Americans whom he served. The 54th was previewed as blacks who could not stand up to the white mans war but in the end expressed what this so called white mans war was truly fought for. The determined black men who entered the 54th came to it with a smile expecting equality in warfare as well as wages, which neither was properly provided. Robert's emotions along with the love that he felt for the regiment soared him throughout the newspapers for his command of materials such as shoes and clothing, as well as honesty, respect, and bravery by putting his own life on the line so one day the states may become united as one.Expedicià ³n de Robert Falcon Scott en el Polo Sur ...Many of the black soldiers who were shown hatred and betrayal through out their lives doubted Robert's words of honesty and promise. It was until that day the shore lines of Fort Wagner where blacks and whites for the first time stood as one with each other to obtain that meaning of equality. That single word "equality" brought courage to the 54th that morning while their lives flashed before them while the most arousing gleam of light began to approach over the sea, each of those men in the 54th knew that this day is worth more than a single life. This day meant freedom will soon ring upon every mountainside. To Colonel Robert and the others who found themselves looking right...

Explanations of Phyletic Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium Assignment

Explanations of Phyletic Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium - Assignment Example (A Dictionary of Ecology, 2004) According to this theory, new species crop up by the conversion of an inherited populace into its customized descendants. This transformation is steady and slow and engrosses huge numbers typically the whole ancestral inhabitants and their geographical series (Eldredge and Gould, 1972). Punctuated equilibrium In 1972, a new theory was anticipated by Eldredge and Gould to explicate the development of species. According to this hypothesis, evolution takes place in small rapid speciation disintegrations and the new species initiate in geological instants and persevere in stasis for extended period. There exists dissimilarity between phyletic gradualism and punctuated equilibrium because the former one states that uniformity prevails in the evolutionary process through slow and gradual transformation of large of complete pedigree. Sporadic record of fossil was the main issue discussed by this theory. The time interval for which specie subsists in a distinc tive appearance is long as compared to the time period in which transition occur from parent specie to its descendents. When a part of populace is segregated from the remaining population, then the smaller part of population undergoes particular deviations which are much slighter then the variations in the population left behind. The environmental factors like climate, the geological location and the reserves when combine with these variations, result in rapid evolution process. Moreover, rapid dispersion and evolution of descendent species from parent species can be resulted from considerable alteration in the daughter species. Few descendent species may be generated by the ancestral specie during its whole time span of life. Genetic homeostasis and gene stream from distant range are responsible for the periods of relative stasis because due to it large populations do not alter much (Elsberry, 1996). Several studies and researches have illustrated that concept of punctuated equilib rium supports long history of life on the planet. Prediction about fossil record by Punctuated equilibrium Punctuated equilibrium composes following predictions about fossil record: The geographic speciation of ancestral population along with environmental and biological diffusion would result in geographically unexpected emergence of the descendant species ubiquitously apart from the area where the evolutionary process took place. Due to this reason, it takes a long time to find the species which go through the splitting process. The pattern of fossil record consists of geographic and stratigraphic components. The intermediary fossils between ancestral species and its descendants for the peripatric speciation will be restricted in the geographic section. As the species transformation time period is petite therefore the geographic existence of fossil record will be concise (Elsberry, 1996). Evidences supporting the two theories The exposure of gradual evolution of taxa from one cate gory to a further one in fossil record supports phyletic gradualism theory which states that evolution occurs by gradual change. But this evidence of gradual evolution is restricted to limited number of taxa therefore, most of the studies and evidences support punctuated equilibrium hypothesis. Long periods of stasis along with rapid and small durations of morphological

Jewish space Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Jewish space - Essay Example It is important to highlight that this area of study has been explored by several scholars. In the literature review, there are several scholars who have taken their time in the conducting of research concerning this area of study. One of the scholars that have explored this area of study is Barbara E. Mann in his book; Space and Places in Jewish Studies, which was published in 2012, he describes the Jews in a hilarious way and he says that these people as those whose studies can easily be altered (Emily, 2007). In his book, he states it so vividly that the rate that the space is turning has the potential of mobilizing and sensitizing the world in a revolutionary manner. It is also important to highlight that Barbara in his second book â€Å"A place in history: Modernism, Tel Aviv and the creation of the Jewish Urban Space† again where he talks of the immigration of the Europeans. In this book, the author talks of how these people attempted to establish for themselves habitat. The book ha consequently tried to properly envisage this case in reference to the challenges and the difficulties that they underwent during this process (Emily, 2007). Another scholar who has also shown some concern over the space is a scholar by the name Cheryl Teelucksingh. This is another scholar who was very much concerned with the question of space. According to Cheryl in the work that was published in 2006, Claiming Space: Racialization in Canadian Cities - Page 60, the writer argues about space. And what is so clear in this case is that this space that is on debate here is relating to the Canadian cities and that this is for the Jewish. In this book, the well learned scholar argues that space that is in question or rather that is claimed as space by the Kehila center is not just acknowledged as space but rather engulfed by the larger and the vast Ashkenazi community or habitation (Emily, 2007). Anne Fuchs in her book that was

Health Campaign Paper Essay Example for Free

Health Campaign Paper Essay The concept of the Philadelphia Department of Public Health was developed in 1732 when the Philadelphia Almshouse began to provide free hospital care to the poor. According to the City of Philadelphia (2010), the Department of Public Health protects health and promotes healthy lifestyles for all Philadelphians. The Department of Public Health â€Å"provides services, set policies, and enforce laws that support the dignity of every man, woman, and child in Philadelphia† (City of Philadelphia, 2010). There are thirteen divisions of the department that are responsible for providing patient services related to those divisions. Each of the division has a primary focus to use to remain on task to achieve the goals of the division. Core Functions According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2011), there are three core functions relating to public health. The three core functions are assessment, policy development, and assurance. Each core function has related essential services that are necessary for each function to be completed. One of the divisions of the Philadelphia Department of Public Health is Disease Control. There are seven services of Disease Control which include acute communicable disease control, bioterrorism and public health preparedness, epidemiology, immunization, sexually transmitted disease control, tuberculosis control, and data and reports. Each of these services work together to assess the spread of disease (including the amount and types of diseases spread), researches ways to control disease processes, develops and implements public health plans to control the spread of disease, and provides information based on the recorded observations to both the health care and public populat ions. Reassurance is provided to the population by relaying information via media, health bulletin, and public service announcements regarding disease processes, control, and prevention. There are eight health centers operated by the Philadelphia Department of Public Health that provide care to neighborhood patient populations. These centers accept insurance, Medicare, Medicaid, and uninsured patient population. Basic outpatient and acute care services, medical management, checkups, women’s health, counseling, lab work, and social work support are all provided by the centers. This additional care allows the burden of care to be shared in the community and not just at the local hospital. When patients register for appointments they have the option to see the same physicians to provide continuity of care for each visit. There are also many federally funded clinics in operation according to the City of Philadelphia (2010). The clinics also work with the local health centers and hospital to provide care to the area residents. Influencing Hospital Setting Public health has directly affected the many things in the hospital setting since its development. The control of infectious diseases is a direct response to the development of public health initiatives. According to the Association of Schools of Public Health (2012), education for both health care workers and general population to increase sanitation has significantly increased reduction of the spread of infectious diseases. Today assessing and monitoring hand washing technique is frequently done hospital wide to prevent spread of infection. Education is provided continually for patients and health care providers as well as reporting of hand washing monitoring statistics related to facility hand washing reports. Continual reassurances of the benefits of hand washing are shared in staff meetings, facility conferences, and performance reviews by administration and management. Risk factor modification for blood pressure control has proven beneficial in decreasing coronary artery disease and stroke mortality rates reports the Association of Schools of Public Health (2012). Public awareness of genetic factors has been promoted via public service announcements, blood pressure/diabetes screenings, and hospital awareness newsletters. Hospitals have incorporated coronary artery disease and stroke awareness into programs to reduce stroke and myocardial infarction mortality rates. Many facilities have added to the awareness by adding public health fairs to promote risk factor awareness, disease prevention, and health promotion. Role of Public Health Workers â€Å"Public health professionals try to prevent problems from happening or re-occurring through implementing educational programs, developing policies, administering services, regulating health systems and some health professions, and conducting research, in contrast to clinical professionals, such as doctors and nurses, who focus primarily on treating individuals after they become sick or injured† (Association of Schools of Public Health ,2012). Public health workers can be anyone from a physician to the sanitation worker. Public health workers are responsible for the duties they were trained for professionally as well as collecting data, discovering resources, provides, emotional support, plans for preparedness for disasters, provides education, and provides organization to work toward positive outcomes using the information gathered and plans developed. Researchers, for example, gather the information and collect surveys to assess the public’s health care needs. The information is used to determine the changes that need to be made as well as the public education that has to be provided. Social needs are also addressed by social workers and counselors to provide support and reassurance. Providig reassurance allows many to feel that their questions and concerns will be addressed. Follow up surveys may also be used to assess the education process and obtain long term feedback from the population addressed. Conclusion Public health is a demanding but fulfilling job for many individuals who work together for the good of society. Continually assessing the needs of the communities allows disease processes to be defined and investigated appropriately to gauge its danger to the surrounding population. Researching and developing plans for controlling the disease process allows educational pieces to be developed to relay to the population to provide reassurance of a possible solution or changes that must be made to avoid the disease process all together. The Philadelphia Department of Public Health has a large population to provide services to. The Divisions assist by breaking down services into manageable parts to be assessed and developed individually. Working together with local hospitals and clinics provides continuity of care between services while receiving education to better the city for future residents. References Association of Schools of Public Health. (2012). The 20th century’s ten great public health achievements in the United States. Retrieved from http://www.whatispublichealth.org/impact/achievements.html Centers for Disease control and Prevention. (2011, May 25). Core functions of public health and how they relate to the ten essential services. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/ehs/ephli/core_ess.htm City of Philadelphia. (2010). Public health city of Philadelphia life liberty and you. Retrieved from http://www.phila.gov/health/AboutDPH.html

The Reapers Image :: essays research papers

The Reaper's Image   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This story is about two men who were transporting an antique mirrow from the first floor of an old museum to the fifth. Their names were Spangler and Carlin. This mirror had a history of being haunted, and some people would look into the mirror and see a hooded figure standing behind them. This figure was presumed to be Death, and whenever someone would see this figure they were never seen again. Carlin spends the whole story trying to convice Spangler that this is really true, but Spangler just calls Carlin crazy. Finally, near the end of the story, Spangler looks in the mirror and sees a dark inperfection in the corner, which he mistakes for friction tape. When Carlin tells him that there is no friction tape on the mirror, Spangler becomes sick and leaves for the bathroom. The story ends with Carlin waiting for Spangler to return.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I thought that this story was very good, because it started off really slow and worked it's way into a really interesting plot. I liked the end because it never really finished, it left the ending up to the reader. This seems to be a common theme in a lot of Stephen King's stories. He likes to leave the reader in suspense, and keep them wondering. Here There Be Tygers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This story is about a little boy named Charles who is in elementary school. He has to go to the bathrrom really bad, but he is afraid to ask because the teacher does not like him. Finally the teacher sees him squirming and asks him if he needs to use the restroom. He says yes and is very embarassed in front of the class, so he leaves quickly. When he steps into the bathroom, he sees a tiger lying in the corner, and it looks hungry. He goes back outside and sits there for a while wondering what he should do. His friend Kenny finally comes up to him because his teacher noticed that he was gone a long time. Charles tells him that there is a tiger in the bathroom, but Kenny does not believe him. Kenny goes into the bathroom and does not come back out. Then even later, his teacher comes and starts yelling at him. She goes into the bathroom and she doesn't come back out either. The story ends with Charles coming back to class and reading a story about a rodeo.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This is another story that ends really abruptly. It was strange because after knowing that his friend and his teacher were both killed by a tiger, he

Ap European History Chapter 12 Review

Week 6 Chapter Review Important People: Sir Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an extravagant Baroque style that emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality. He is well-known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. In addition to running a large studio in Antwerp that produced paintings popular with nobility and art collectors throughout Europe, Rubens was a classically educated humanist scholar, art collector, and diplomat who was knighted by both Philip IV, King of Spain, and Charles I, King of England. In 1621, the Queen Mother of France, Marie de' Medici, commissioned Rubens to paint two large allegorical cycles celebrating her life and the life of her late husband, Henry IV, for the Luxembourg Palace in Paris. The Marie de' Medici cycle (now in the Louvre) was installed in 1625, and although he began work on the second series it was never completed. Marie was exiled from France in 1630 by her son, Louis XIII, and died in 1642 in the same house in Cologne where Rubens had lived as a child. After the end of the Twelve Years' Truce in 1621, the Spanish Habsburg rulers entrusted Rubens with a number of diplomatic missions. In 1624 the French ambassador wrote from Brussels: â€Å"Rubens is here to take the likeness of the prince of Poland, by order of the infanta. † Between 1627 and 1630, Rubens's diplomatic career was particularly active, and he moved between the courts of Spain and England in an attempt to bring peace between the Spanish Netherlands and the United Provinces. He also made several trips to the northern Netherlands as both an artist and a diplomat. At the courts he sometimes encountered the attitude that courtiers should not use their hands in any art or trade, but he was also received as a gentleman by many. It was during this period that Rubens was twice knighted, first by Philip IV of Spain in 1624, and then by Charles I of England in 1630. He was awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree from Cambridge University in 1629. Rubens was in Madrid for eight months in 1628–1629. In addition to diplomatic negotiations, he executed several important works for Philip IV and private patrons. He also began a renewed study of Titian's paintings, copying numerous works including the Madrid Fall of Man. During this stay, he befriended the court painter Diego Velazquez and the two planned to travel to Italy together the following year. Rubens, however, returned to Antwerp and Velazquez made the journey without him. His stay in Antwerp was brief, and he soon travelled on to London where he remained until April 1630. An important work from this period is the Allegory of Peace and War. It illustrates the artist's strong concern for peace, and was given to Charles I as a gift. While Rubens's international reputation with collectors and nobility abroad continued to grow during this decade, he and his workshop also continued to paint monumental paintings for local patrons in Antwerp. The Assumption of the Virgin Mary for the Cathedral of Antwerp is one prominent example. Rubens's last decade was spent in and around Antwerp. Major works for foreign patrons still occupied him, such as the ceiling paintings for the Banqueting House at Inigo Jones's Palace of Whitehall, but he also explored more personal artistic directions. In 1630, four years after the death of his first wife, the 53-year-old painter married 16-year-old Helene Fourment. Helene inspired the voluptuous figures in many of his paintings from the 1630s, including The Feast of Venus, The Three Graces and The Judgment of Paris. In the latter painting, which was made for the Spanish court, the artist's young wife was recognized by viewers in the figure of Venus. In an intimate portrait of her, Helene Fourment in a Fur Wrap, also known as Het Pelsken, Rubens's wife is even partially modelled after classical sculptures of the Venus Pudica, such as the Medici Venus. In 1635, Rubens bought an estate outside of Antwerp, the Steen, where he spent much of his time. Landscapes, such as his Chateau de Steen with Hunter and Farmers Returning from the Fields, reflect the more personal nature of many of his later works. He also drew upon the Netherlandish traditions of Pieter Bruegel the Elder for inspiration in later works like Flemish Kermis. Rubens died from gout on 30 May 1640. He was interred in Saint Jacob's church, Antwerp. Lord Michel Eyquem de was one of the most influential writers of the French Renaissance, known for popularising the essay as a literary genre and is popularly thought of as the father of Modern Skepticism. He became famous for his effortless ability to merge serious intellectual speculation with casual anecdotes and autobiography—and his massive volume Essais (translated literally as â€Å"Attempts†) contains, to this day, some of the most widely influential essays ever written. Montaigne had a direct influence on writers the world over, including Rene Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Friedrich Nietzsche, Stefan Zweig, Eric Hoffer, Isaac Asimov, and perhaps William Shakespeare. In his own time, Montaigne was admired more as a statesman than as an author. The tendency in his essays to digress into anecdotes and personal ruminations was seen as detrimental to proper style rather than as an innovation, and his declaration that, ‘I am myself the matter of my book', was viewed by his contemporaries as self-indulgent. In time, however, Montaigne would be recognized as embodying, perhaps better than any other author of his time, the spirit of freely entertaining doubt which began to emerge at that time. He is most famously known for his skeptical remark, ‘Que sais-je? ‘ (‘What do I know? ‘). Remarkably modern even to readers today, Montaigne's attempt to examine the world through the lens of the only thing he can depend on implicitly—his own judgment—makes him more accessible to modern readers than any other author of the Renaissance. Much of modern literary non-fiction has found inspiration in Montaigne and writers of all kinds continue to read him for his masterful balance of intellectual knowledge and personal story-telling. His fame rests on the Essais, a collection of a large number of short subjective treatments of various topics published in 1580, inspired by his studies in the classics, especially Plutarch. Montaigne's stated goal is to describe humans, and especially himself, with utter frankness. Montaigne's writings are studied within literary studies, as literature and philosophy. Inspired by his consideration of the lives and ideals of the leading figures of his age, he finds the great variety and volatility of human nature to be its most basic features. He describes his own poor memory, his ability to solve problems and mediate conflicts without truly getting emotionally involved, his disdain for the human pursuit of lasting fame, and his attempts to detach himself from worldly things to prepare for his timely death. He writes about his disgust with the religious conflicts of his time, reflecting a spirit of skepticism and belief that humans are not able to attain true certainty. The longest of his essays, Apology for Raymond Sebond, contains his famous motto, â€Å"What do I know? † Montaigne considered marriage necessary for the raising of children, but disliked strong feelings of passionate love because he saw them as detrimental to freedom. In education, he favored concrete examples and experience over the teaching of abstract knowledge that has to be accepted uncritically. His essay â€Å"On the Education of Children† is dedicated to Diana of Foix. The Essais exercised important influence on both French and English literature, in thought and style. Thinkers exploring similar ideas include Erasmus, Thomas More, and Guillaume Bude, who all worked about fifty years before Montaigne. Since Edward Capell first made the suggestion in 1780, some scholars believe that Shakespeare was familiar with Montaigne's essays. John Florio's translation of Montaigne's Essais became available to Shakespeare in English in 1603. It is suggested that Montaigne's influence is especially noticeable in â€Å"Hamlet† and â€Å"King Lear†, both in language and in the skepticism present in both plays. For an example, compare Shakespeare's Hamlet to Rosencrantz, at Hamlet Act 2, scene 2, about line 240, with an earlier quote of Montaigne. â€Å"†¦ for there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so. To me it is a prison. â€Å". â€Å"Whether the events in our life are good or bad greatly depends on the way we perceive them. † Much of Blaise Pascal's skepticism in his Pensees was a result of reading Montaigne. Ralph Waldo Emerson chose â€Å"Montaigne; or, the Skeptic† as a subject of one of his series of lectures entitled Representative Men, along side other subjects such as Shakespeare and Plato. Friedrich Nietzsche judged of Montaigne: â€Å"That such a man wrote has truly augmented the joy of living on this Earth† Valentin Weigel was a German theologian, philosopher and mystical writer, from Saxony, and an important precursor of later theosophy. In English he is often called Valentine Weigel. He was born at Hayn, near Dresden, into a Catholic family. He studied at Meissen, Leipzig, and Wittenberg. In 1567 he became a pastor at Zschopau, near Chemnitz. There, he lived out a quiet life, engaged in his writings. Weigel was best known for his belief that the Virgin Mary was herself the product of a virgin birth. He based his belief on the idea of the immaculate conception, which required that Mary must also be sinless in order to bear God in the flesh. He kept his ideas secret, entrusting them only to personal friends (in contrast to Jakob Bohme). He carried out his parishioner duties and kept a low profile. He left around 6000 pages in printed or manuscript works. His ideas on human nature were only gradually and posthumously published. Johann Arndt, Gottfried Arnold, and Gottfried Leibniz helped to spread Weigel's ideas. His mysticism was marked by that of Johannes Tauler and by doctrines of Paracelsus; he was also a follower of Sebastian Franck and Caspar Schwenckfeldt. Like these two latter, he emphasized the inner life. John Calvin was an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530. After religious tensions provoked a violent uprising against Protestants in France, Calvin fled to Basel, Switzerland, where he published the first edition of his seminal work The Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536. In that year, Calvin was recruited by William Farel to help reform the church in Geneva. The city council resisted the implementation of Calvin and Farel's ideas, and both men were expelled. At the invitation of Martin Bucer, Calvin proceeded to Strasbourg, where he became the minister of a church of French refugees. He continued to support the reform movement in Geneva, and was eventually invited back to lead its church. Following his return, Calvin introduced new forms of church government and liturgy, despite the opposition of several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority. During this time, the trial of Michael Servetus was extended by libertines in an attempt to harass Calvin. However, since Servetus was also condemned and wanted by the Inquisition, outside pressure from all over Europe forced the trial to continue. Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvin's opponents were forced out. Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe. Calvin was a tireless polemic and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including Philipp Melanchthon and Heinrich Bullinger. In addition to the Institutes, he wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, as well as theological treatises and confessional documents. He regularly preached sermons throughout the week in Geneva. Calvin was influenced by the Augustinian tradition, which led him to expound the doctrine of predestination and the absolute sovereignty of God in salvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation. Calvin's writing and preachings provided the seeds for the branch of theology that bears his name. The Reformed and Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as a chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. After the deaths of Calvin and his successor, Beza, the Geneva city council gradually gained control over areas of life that were previously in the ecclesiastical domain. Increasing secularisation was accompanied by the decline of the church. Even the Geneva academie was eclipsed by universities in Leiden and Heidelberg, which became the new strongholds of Calvin's ideas, first identified as â€Å"Calvinism† by Joachim Westphal in 1552. By 1585, Geneva, once the wellspring of the reform movement, had become merely its symbol. However, Calvin had always warned against describing him as an â€Å"idol† and Geneva as a new â€Å"Jerusalem†. He encouraged people to adapt to the environments in which they found themselves. Even during his polemical exchange with Westphal, he advised a group of French-speaking refugees, who had settled in Wesel, Germany, to integrate with the local Lutheran churches. Despite his differences with the Lutherans, he did not deny that they were members of the true Church. Calvin’s recognition of the need to adapt to local conditions became an important characteristic of the reformation movement as it spread across Europe. Due to Calvin's missionary work in France, his programme of reform eventually reached the French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands. Calvinism was adopted in the Palatinate under Frederick III, which led to the formulation of the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563. This and the Belgic Confession were adopted as confessional standards in the first synod of the Dutch Reformed Church in 1571. Leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England (Martin Bucer, Peter Martyr, and Jan Laski) and Scotland (John Knox). During the English Civil War, the Calvinistic Puritans produced the Westminster Confession, which became the confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English-speaking world. Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to other parts of the world including North America, South Africa, and Korea. Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement; but his death allowed his ideas to break out of their city of origin, to succeed far beyond their borders, and to establish their own distinct character. Theodore Beza (Theodore de Beze or de Besze) was a French Protestant Christian theologian and scholar who played an important role in the Reformation. A member of the monarchomaque movement who opposed absolute monarchy, he was a disciple of John Calvin and lived most of his life in Switzerland. As Calvin's successor, Beza was very successful, not only in carrying on his work but also in giving peace to the Church at Geneva. The magistrates had fully appropriated the ideas of Calvin, and the direction of spiritual affairs, the organs of which were the â€Å"ministers of the word† and â€Å"the consistory†, was founded on a solid basis. No doctrinal controversy arose after 1564. The discussions concerned questions of a practical, social, or ecclesiastical nature, such as the supremacy of the magistrates over the pastors, freedom in preaching, and the obligation of the pastors to submit to the majority of the campagnie des pasteurs. Beza obtruded his will in no way upon his associates, and took no harsh measures against injudicious or hot-headed colleagues, though sometimes he took their cases in hand and acted as mediator; and yet he often experienced an opposition so extreme that he threatened to resign. Although he was inclined to take the part of the magistrates, he knew how to defend the rights and independence of the spiritual power when occasion arose, without, however, conceding to it such a preponderating influence as did Calvin. His activity was great. He mediated between the compagnie and the magistracy; the latter continually asked his advice even in political questions. He corresponded with all the leaders of the Reformed party in Europe. After the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572), he used his influence to give to the refugees a hospitable reception at Geneva. In 1574 he wrote his De jure magistratuum (Right of Magistrates), in which he emphatically protested against tyranny in religious matters, and affirmed that it is legitimate for a people to oppose an unworthy magistracy in a practical manner and if necessary to use weapons and depose them. Without being a great dogmatician like his master, nor a creative genius in the ecclesiastical realm, Beza had qualities which made him famous as humanist, exegete, orator, and leader in religious and political affairs, and qualified him to be the guide of the Calvinists in all Europe. In the various controversies into which he was drawn, Beza often showed an excess of irritation and intolerance, from which Bernardino Ochino, pastor of the Italian congregation at Zurich (on account of a treatise which contained some objectionable points on polygamy), and Sebastian Castellio at Basel (on account of his Latin and French translations of the Bible) had especially to suffer. With Reformed France Beza continued to maintain the closest relations. He was the moderator of the general synod which met in April, 1571, at La Rochelle and decided not to abolish church discipline or to acknowledge the civil government as head of the Church, as the Paris minister Jean Morel and the philosopher Pierre Ramus demanded; it also decided to confirm anew the Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord's Supper (by the expression: â€Å"substance of the body of Christ†) against Zwinglianism, which caused a very unpleasant discussion between Beza and Ramus and Heinrich Bullinger. In the following year (May, 1572) he took an important part in the national synod at Nimes. He was also interested in the ontroversies which concerned the Augsburg Confession in Germany, especially after 1564, on the doctrine of the Person of Christ and the sacrament, and published several works against Westphal, Hesshusen, Selnecker, Johannes Brenz, and Jakob Andrea. This made him, especially after 1571, hated by all those who adhered to Lutheranism in opposition to Mela nchthon Jeanne d'Albret, also known as Jeanne III or Joan III, was the queen regnant of Navarre from 1555 to 1572. She married Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendome, and was the mother of Henry of Bourbon, who became King of Navarre and of France as Henry IV, the first Bourbon king. She became the Duchess of Vendome by marriage. She was the acknowledged spiritual and political leader of the French Huguenot movement, and a key figure in the French Wars of Religion. The power struggle between Catholics and Huguenots for control of the French court and France as a whole, led to the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion in 1562. Jeanne and Antoine were at court, when the latter made the decision to support the Catholic faction, which was headed by the House of Guise; and in consequence, threatened to repudiate Jeanne when she refused to attend Mass. Catherine de' Medici, in an attempt to steer a middle course between the two warring factions, also pleaded with Jeanne to obey her husband for the sake of peace but to no avail. Jeanne stood her ground and staunchly refused to abandon the Calvinist religion, and continued to have Protestant services conducted in her apartments. When many of the other nobles also joined the Catholic camp, Catherine had no choice but to support the Catholic faction. Fearing both her husband's and Catherine's anger, Jeanne left Paris in March 1562 and made her way south to seek refuge in Bearn. When Jeanne had stopped for a brief sojourn at her husband's ancestral chateau in Vendome on 14 May to break her lengthy homeward journey, she failed to prevent a 400-strong Huguenot force from invading the town. The soldiers marauded through the streets of Vendome, ransacked all the churches, maltreated the inhabitants, and pillaged the ducal chapel, which housed the tombs of Antoine's ancestors. In consequence, her husband adopted a belligerent stance with her. He issued orders to Blaise de Lasseran-Massencome, seigneur de Montluc to have her arrested and returned o Paris where she would subsequently be sent to a Catholic convent. She resumed her journey after quitting Vendome and managed to elude her captors, safely passing over the frontier into Bearn before she could be intercepted by the seigneur de Montluc and his troops. At the end of the year, Antoine was fatally wounded at the siege of Rouen and died before Jeanne could obtain the necessary permission to cross over enemy li nes, in order to be at his bedside where she had wished nurse him. His mistress instead was summoned to his deathbed. Jeanne henceforth ruled Navarre as the sole queen regnant; her sex being no impediment to her sovereignity. Her son Henry subsequently became â€Å"first prince of the blood†. Jeanne often brought him along on her many progresses through her domains to oversee administrative affairs. Jeanne haughtily refused an offer of matrimony issued by King Philip II of Spain who had hoped to marry her to his son, on the condition that she return to the Catholic faith. Jeanne's position in the conflicts remained relatively neutral in the beginning, being mainly preoccupied with military defences, given Navarre's geographic location beside Catholic Spain. Papal envoys arrived and tried to coerce and threaten her into returning to Catholicism and abolishing heresy within her kingdom. Her response was to coldly reply that â€Å"the authority of the Pope's legate is not recognised in Bearn†. At one stage there was a papal plot led by Pope Pius IV to have her kidnapped and turned over to the Spanish Inquistion. Jeanne was summoned to Rome to be examined for heresy under the triple penalty of excommunication, the confiscation of her property, and a declaration that her kingdom was available to any ruler who wished to invade it. This last threat alarmed King Philip, and the blatant interference by the Papacy in French affairs also enraged Catherine de' Medici who, on behalf of Charles IX, sent angry letters of protest to the Pope. The papal threats never materialised. During the French Court's royal progress between January 1564 and May 1565, Jeanne met and held talks with Catherine de' Medici at Macon and Nerac. When the third religious war broke out in 1568, however, she decided to actively support the Huguenot cause. Feeling that their lives were in danger from encroaching French Catholic and Spanish troops, Jeanne and Henry sought efuge in the Protestant stronghold of La Rochelle. As Minister of Propaganda, Jeanne wrote manifestos and composed letters to sympathetic foreign rulers, requesting their assistance. Jeanne had visualised the province of Guyenne as a â€Å"Protestant homeland† and played a leading role in the military actions from 1569 to 1570 with the aim of seeing her dream come to fru ition. Whilst at La Rochelle, she assumed control of the fortifications, finances, Intelligence gathering, and the maintaining of discipline amongst the civilian populace. She used her own jewellery as security in a loan obtained from Queen Elizabeth I of England, and oversaw the well-being of the numerous refugees who sought shelter within La Rochelle. She often accompanied Admiral de Coligny to the battlefield where the fighting was at its most intense; together they inspected the defences and rallied the Huguenot forces. Jeanne also established a religious seminary in La Rochelle, drawing the most learned Huguenot men in France within its walls. Following the Huguenot defeat on 16 March 1569 at the Battle of Jarnac where Jeanne's brother-in-law, Louis I de Bourbon, Prince de Conde was killed, Gaspard de Coligny assumed command of the Huguenot forces nominally on behalf of her son Henry and Conde's son, Henri I de Bourbon, Prince de Conde. Jeanne had established them as the legitimate leaders of the Huguenot cause. After her funeral, which was conducted according to the rites of the Protestant Church, a cortege bearing her body travelled through the streets of Vendome. She was buried beside her husband at Ducal Church of collegiale Saint-Georges. The tombs were destroyed when the church was sacked in 1793 during the French Revolution. Her son Henry succeeded her, becoming King Henry III of Navarre. In 1589, he ascended the French throne as Henry IV; founding the Bourbon line of kings. Don Fernando Alvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, 3rd Duke of Alba was a Spanish general and governor of the Spanish Netherlands, nicknamed â€Å"the Iron Duke† in the Low Countries because of his harsh and cruel rule there and his role in the execution of his political opponents and the massacre of several cities. In 1567, Philip, who was a zealous opponent of Protestantism, sent Alba into the Netherlands at the head of an army of 10,000 men, with unlimited powers for the extirpation of the heretics. Alba quickly erected a tribunal, the Council of Troubles, which soon became known to the Calvinists as the â€Å"Council of Blood,† to try all persons who had been engaged in the late commotions that the rule of Philip had excited. During the ten years it operated, thousands of people were executed. The precise number is disputed: Dutch sources cite 18,000 victims, while Spanish accounts mention only a few hundred. About 12,000 casualties can be considered as the most accurate estimate, of which 1,083 were executed. Alba imprisoned the Count of Egmont and the Count of Hoorn, the two popular leaders of the dissatisfied Dutch nobles, and had them condemned to death even though they were Catholics. Alba attempted to raise money by imposing the Spanish alcabala, a tax of 10% on all sales (â€Å"tenth penny† tax) on the Low Countries, and this aroused the opposition of many Catholic residents as well. The exiles from the Low Countries, who called themselves Geuzen (French gueux, â€Å"beggars†), encouraged by the general resistance to his government, fitted out a fleet of privateers, and after strengthening themselves by successful depredations, seized the town of Den Briel (Brielle). Thus Alba, by his unrelenting harshness, became the unwitting instrument of the future independence of the seven Dutch provinces. On 22 August, Alba, accompanied by a body of select Spanish troops, made his entry into Brussels. He immediately appointed a council to condemn without trial those suspected of heresy and rebellion. On 1 June 1568, Brussels witnessed the simultaneous decapitation of twenty-two noblemen; on 6 June followed the execution of the Counts of Egmond and Hoorne. The fleet of the exiles, having met the Spanish fleet, defeated it and reduced Holland and Mons. The States of Holland, assembling at Dordrecht in 1572, openly declared against Alba's government, and marshaled under the banners of the prince of Orange. Alba's preparations to defeat the gathering storm were made with his usual rapidity and vigour, and he succeeded in recovering Mons, Mechelen and Zutphen, under the conduct of his son Don Fadrique. All three cities were sacked and many civilians killed. With the exception of Zeeland and Holland, he regained all the provinces; and at last his son stormed Naarden, massacring every man, woman and child, proceeded to invest the city of Haarlem, which, after standing an obstinate siege, was taken and pillaged. Their next attack was upon Alkmaar; but there they were met with such desperate resistance that Alba was forced to retire. William II, Prince of Orange was sovereign Prince of Orange and stadtholder of the United Provinces of the Netherlands from 14 March 1647 until his death three years later. William II, Prince of Orange, was the son of stadtholder Frederik Hendrik of Orange and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. William the Silent had been succeeded in the position of stadtholder and as commander of the Dutch States Army by his son Maurits of Nassau, who in turn was followed by his brother Frederick Henry. William II’s ancestors governed in conjunction with the States-General, an assembly made up of representatives of each of the seven provinces but usually dominated by the largest and wealthiest province, Holland. On May 2, 1641, William married Mary Henrietta Stuart, the Princess Royal, the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England and Queen Henrietta Maria in the Chapel Royal, Whitehall Palace, London. In 1648 he opposed acceptance of the Treaty of Munster, despite the fact that it recognized the independence of the Netherlands. Secretly, William opened his own negotiations with France with the goal of extending his own territory under a centralized government. In addition, he worked for the restoration of his brother-in-law, Charles II, to the throne of England. In 1650 William II became involved in a bitter quarrel with the province of Holland and the powerful regents of Amsterdam, like Andries Bicker and his cousin Cornelis de Graeff over troop reduction following the Treaty of Munster. William opposed the reduction in the size of the army which would diminish his powerbase. This resulted in William putting eight members (oa. Jacob de Witt) of the provincial assembly in prison in the castle of Loevestein. In addition he sent his cousin Willem Frederik of Nassau-Dietz with an army of 10 thousand troops with the aim of taking Amsterdam by force. Bad weather foiled this campaign. After having served as stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel for only three years, he died of smallpox in 1650. His son William was born one week after his death. This was the beginning of the First Stadtholderless Period for the provinces Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel. His son succeeded him in 1672 as stadtholder and later, in 1689, also became king of England. Pope Saint Pius V, born Antonio Ghislieri, was Pope from 1566 to 1572 and is a saint of the Catholic Church. He is chiefly notable for his role in the Council of Trent, the Counter-Reformation, and the standardization of the Roman liturgy within the Latin Church. Pius V declared saint Thomas Aquinas a Doctor of the Church and patronized prominent sacred music composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. As Cardinal Ghislieri he gained a reputation for putting orthodoxy before personalities, prosecuting eight French Bishops for heresy. He also stood firm against nepotism, rebuking his predecessor Pope Pius IV to his face when he wanted to make a 13-year old member of his family a cardinal and subsidise a nephew from the Papal treasury. In affairs of state, Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth I of England for schism and persecutions of English Catholics during her reign. He also arranged the formation of the Holy League, an alliance of Catholic states. Although outnumbered, the Holy League famously defeated the Ottomans, who had threatened to overrun Europe, at the Battle of Lepanto. This victory Pius V attributed to the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary and instituted the feast, Our Lady of Victory. St Pius V recognized attacks on papal supremacy in the Catholic Church and was desirous of limiting their advancement. In France, where his influence was stronger, he took several measures to oppose the Protestant Huguenots. He directed the dismissal of Cardinal Odet de Coligny and seven bishops, nullified the royal edict tolerating the extramural services of the Reformers, introduced the Roman catechism, restored papal discipline, and strenuously opposed all compromise with the Huguenot nobility. Pius V died on 1 May 1572. He was succeeded by Pope Gregory XIII. In 1696, the process of Pius's canonisation was started through the efforts of the Master of the Order of Preachers, Antonin Cloche. He also immediately commissioned a representative tomb from the sculptor Pierre Le Gros the Younger to be erected in the Sistine Chapel of the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. The pope's body was placed in it in 1698. St Pius V was beatified by Pope Clement X in the year 1672, and was later canonized by Pope Clement XI on 24 May 1712. Pope St Pius V also helped financially in the construction of the city of Valletta, Malta's capital city by sending his military engineer Francesco Laparelli to design the fortification walls. Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius von Wallenstein, actually von Waldstein, was a Bohemian soldier and politician, who offered his services, and an army of 30,000 to 100,000 men during the Danish period of the Thirty Years' War, to the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II. He became the supreme commander of the armies of the Habsburg Monarchy and one of the major figures of the Thirty Years' War. A successful generalissimo who had made himself ruler of the lands of the Duchy of Friedland in northern Bohemia, Wallenstein found himself released from service in 1630 after Ferdinand grew wary of his ambition. Several Protestant victories over Catholic armies induced Ferdinand to recall Wallenstein, who again turned the war in favor of the Imperial cause. Dissatisfied with the Emperor's treatment of him, Wallenstein considered allying with the Protestants. However, Ferdinand had the general assassinated at Eger (Cheb) in Egerland by one of the army's officials, Walter Devereux. Wallenstein's particular genius lay in recognizing a new way for funding war: instead of merely plundering enemies, he called for a new method of systematic â€Å"war taxes†. Even a city or a prince on the side of the Emperor had to pay taxes towards the war. He understood the enormous wastage of resources that resulted from tax exactions on princes and cities of defeated enemies only, and desired to replace this with a â€Å"balanced† system of taxation; wherein both sides bore the cost of a war. He was unable to fully realize this ambition; and in fact his idea led to the random exploitation of whole populations on either side, until finally, almost fifteen years after his death, the war had become so expensive that the warring parties were forced to make peace. In any case, Wallenstein's idea inspired many, among them, Colbert, to â€Å"pluck the goose with a minimum of screeching†. Chapter Review Questions: 1)During the Wars of Religion, politics played an important role in the stances of French leaders. French leaders were persuaded to stand by the religion that would give them the most powerful political stance; they had no interest in the true goals of the religions. Catherine de' Medici, a relative of Pope Clement VII, married the duke of Orleans at age 14; he would become King Henry II of France. But Henry died after about six years of rule, and his successor, Francis II, died the year after that, leaving Catherine as regent for the 10-year-old Charles IX. Catherine let the Jesuits back into France and, seeing the alarming probability that the Reformation might gain a toehold in France, the Jesuits began circulating provocative rumors (1567) of a Huguenot plot to sack and burn Paris. The Huguenot leader, Admiral Coligny, began to exercise more influence over Charles in matters of state than Catherine, so she used the occasion of a political marriage designed to make peace between Protestants and Catholics — the marriage of Henry of Navarre to Marguerite de Valois — to have Coligny assassinated. The plot failed and Coligny was only wounded, but the Huguenot leaders, assembled in Paris in great numbers for the wedding, were infuriated. Charles vowed punishments for the plotters, but with all the important heretics in one place, Catherine saw her final solution to the Huguenot problem: She browbeat the young King into approving a massacre — for reasons of national security. On Sunday, 24 August 1572, at daybreak, French Catholic troops and Catholic citizens drew blood. An eyewitness described the scene: The slaughter in Paris lasted until 17 September, but spread to the provinces, where it continued until 3 October. Admiral Coligny was among the dead. In all of France about 50,000 were slain — more than twice as many people killed over religion in 40 days, as French revolutionaries killed over politics in three years! When news of this holocaust of French Protestants reached the world, Catherine de' Medici received the congratulations of all the Catholic powers, and Pope Gregory XIII ordered bonfires lighted and the singing of the Te Deum. Indeed, the Pope's joy was so great that he commanded a gold medal to be minted, with the inscription, â€Å"Slaughter [strages] of the Huguenots. He then had Giorgio Vasari paint pictures in the Vatican of â€Å"the glorious triumph over a perfidious race. † An ecclesiastical annalist named Strype suggested that the comet of 1572 was a token of Divine wrath provoked by the massacre. But if God was watching, he made no move to turn the events begun on St. Bartholomew's Day, 1572. The realization that a solution was needed was finally realised. 2 )Spain became the dominant power in Europe in the 16th century because of the countless gold and treasure from its New World territories. This era is known by the Spanish as El siglo de oro, â€Å"the golden century†. All this money allowed Spain to purchase and develop the best military technology of the time. However Spain's greatest weakness with all this money was how it ran its very society. Spain had a very feudal society. One's place in it was determined by your birth. Spain's nobilty looked down on any labour as beneath them. Any labour or business was viewed as tasks for commoners. As a result, Spanish nobility was expected to live a life of leisure. When the highest and wealthiest portion of your society doesn't work, all they're doing is spending money, but not generating any new funds. It was only a matter of time before Spain burned through all its wealth. Spain was also exceedingly intolerant towards other religions. Spain's period of wealth and dominance corresponded with the Protestant reformation in Europe. The Spanish king Philp II was a very devout Catholic, who viewed the Reformation as heresy and the work of the Devil. Philp made it the goal of his entire reign to suppress the spread of Protestantism. He was only successful with this goal somewhat. Under Philip's reign Spain became its most powerful, but also started its decline. During his reign the Netherlands revolted against the Spanish Hapsburg crown, Spain experienced costly wars against France and England, and Portugal gained its independence from Spain. Philip II was also successful in that he consolidated Spain's overseas empire, succeeded in massively increasing the importation of silver in the face of English, Dutch and French privateering, and ended the major threat posed to Europe by the Ottoman navy. During his reign, Spain became the greatest naval power in the Mediterranean. 3)A politique is a ruler who focuses more on what is good for their country than on religion. Also, I don't know if Henry of Navarre can be called a politique, because the entire reason he became king came from a power struggle between the Huguenots(french protestants) and french Catholics. The same goes for William of Orange, as he was significant as a result of the revolt in the Netherlands against their Spanish rulers. The Spanish attempted to convert the Netherlands, which were largely Protestant, to Catholicism, which was the established religion in Spain. Elizabeth I, on the other hand, was definitely a politique. Elizabeth took the throne after her sister, Mary I died in 1558. Mary had been a staunch Catholic like her mother, Catherine of Aragon, who originally came from Spain. Mary herself took the throne after their younger brother Edward VI died young due to lifelong poor health. Their father, Henry VIII, had established the Church of England, in order to no longer have to answer to the Pope so that he could divorce Catherine and marry Elizabeth's mother, Anne Boleyn. Mary did not like the Church of England, and so when she took the throne in 1553, she reinstated the Catholic church and had those who refused to convert executed. Elizabeth, by comparison, concentrated more on her foreign relations than on religion, although she did make the Church of England the official religion of England. 4)In 1534 King Henry VIII separated the English Church from Rome. A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English church such as Lollardy, but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn. Pope Clement VII, considering that the earlier marriage had been entered under a papal dispensation and how Catherine's nephew, Emperor Charles V, might react do such a move, refused the annulment. Eventually, Henry, although theologically opposed to Protestantism, took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage. He was excommunicated by Pope Paul III. Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers ere unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry's reign saw the trial for heresy of Protestants as well as Roman Catholics. Under his son, Edward VI, more Protestant-influenced forms of worship were adopted. Under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, a more radical reformation proceeded. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles. The confession of the reformed Church of England was set out in the Forty-two Articles (later revised to thirty-nine). The reformation however was cut short by the death of the king. Queen Mary I, who succeeded him, returned England again to the authority of the Pope, thereby ending the first attempt at an independent Church of England. During Mary's reign, many leaders and common people were burnt for their refusal to recant of their reformed faith. These are known as the Marian martyrs and the persecution has led to her nickname of â€Å"Bloody Mary†. Mary also died childless and so it was left to the new regime of her half-sister Elizabeth to resolve the direction of the church. The settlement under Elizabeth I (from 1558), known as the Elizabethan settlement, developed the via media (middle way) character of the Church of England, a church moderately Reformed in doctrine, as expressed in the Thirty-nine Articles, but also emphasising continuity with the Catholic and Apostolic traditions of the Church Fathers. It was also an established church (constitutionally established by the state with the head of state as its supreme governor). The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be a source of continued friction into the next century. 5)Thirty Years' War , a series of European conflicts from 1618 to 1648, fought primarily in Germany. The war started in Bohemia with a Protestant revolt against the Holy Roman Empire and eventually involved almost all of the countries of Europe. By its final years, religious issues had been submerged and it had become a struggle for power between Austria and Spain on one side and France on the other. Politics determined the outcome of the ar greatly. The Thirty Years' War rearranged the European power structure. The last decade of the conflict saw clear signs of Spain weakening. While Spain was fighting in France, Portugal — which had been under personal union with Spain for 60 years — acclaimed John IV of Braganza as king in 1640, and the House of Braganza became the new dynasty of Portugal (see Portuguese Restoration War, for further information ). Meanwhile, Spain was forced to accept the independence of the Dutch Republic in 1648, ending the Eighty Years' War. Bourbon France challenged Habsburg Spain's supremacy in the Franco-Spanish War (1635-59); gaining definitive ascendancy in the War of Devolution (1667–68), and the Franco-Dutch War (1672–78), under the leadership of Louis XIV. The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in Osnabruck and Munster. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic. The Peace of Westphalia treaties involved the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III, of the House of Habsburg, the Kingdoms of Spain, France, Sweden, the Dutch Republic, the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, and sovereigns of the free imperial cities. The war needed to reach the point of great unrest before it could be resolved with a treaty. 6)It seems â€Å"meaningless† only because the European conflagration lacked a clear point of dispute, not that it lacked any purpose. On the contrary, there were too many points of contention or flash points, far too numerous to even list in a short essay. Once the breaking point was reached on one or some of them, it set off a chain reaction of other open conflicts of long simmering divisions, mostly religious, but those caused by changing balance of powers. This is far from unusual. World War II ended up being a war between two major European alliances for complicated broken treaties and border violations, but was started by a single assassination of an Austro-Hungarian archduke. There was no single principle or cause being fought for in either case. World War II has a simpler narrative, totalitarian states like Germany and Japan attempted to conquer the world, and the good guys resisted and beat them back, but even that belies a deeper complexity in the reasons and chain of events that led to it. The Thirty Years War was fought not for any simple cause, but for too many different reasons, so that for the modern generations, it seems altogether too obscure and frivolous. Nothing could be further from the truth. It was in fact a major realignment of European powers in the aftermath of the battles of the Reformation movement as well as the decline of Spanish Power and the eventual breakup of the Germanic Holy Roman Empire. In fact, the consequences of this breakup has historically lead to both World War I and World War II. In order to fully understand the causes of those major world wars, a thorough understanding of the Thirty Years War is a must.

Ethical Dimensions Essay

Health care tools has changed to organize better care for patients. Doctor’s use computer’s or laptop in the office and exam rooms to enter electronic health records (EHR). The EHR makes it easier for the patients to receive better organized care along with better organized health statistics. The Health Insurance Portability Accountability Act (HIPAA) administers the HIPPA Privacy and Security Rules for individual’s protection of their health information. Many doctors and health care providers recognize and accept all requirements under the Security and Privacy Rules. EHR permits health care providers and doctor’s to use data efficiently in their care and to develop the superiority and effectiveness for the betterment of the patient. Hospitals, doctor’s offices, and care givers must meet the criteria of Electronic Health Record Program to become eligible for the Medicaid and Medicare Services (CMS). The first year, hospitals and Eligible Professionals (EP) do not have to demonstrate their important use, but are obligated to approve or upgrade to an (EHR) for them to receive payments for the services rendered. All work must be documented correctly in stage 1, (data capture & sharing)- stage 2 (Advance clinical processes), or stage 3 (Improved Outcomes) The HIPAA Privacy Rule gives the patient’s rights to all information documented concerning them. Whether on paper or electronic, the patient have the rights to their medical records, get correction made if any mistakes are found, informed if the doctor use or give his/her information to anyone, to see where they contact you, and to complain if needed to OCR website www.hhs.gov/ocr. References How do HIPAA Privacy and Security Rules apply to Health IT and EHRs? †¦ December 12, 2011, 10:24 am / Leon Rodriguez / Former Director, HHS, Health IT Buzz > Privacy and Security of EHRs > Privacy, Security, and Electronic Health Record, December 12, 2011, 10:24 am / Leon Rodriguez / Former Director, HHS Office for Civil Rights www.healthit.gov †º Health IT Buzz †º Privacy and Security of EHRs Health IT.gov, For Providers & Professionals, EHR Incentives & Certification, Last updated: Tuesday, January 15, 2013, www.healthit.gov †º †¦ †º EHR Incentives & Certification, Apr 9, 2014

Technological Generations of Mobile Communications

Technological Generations of Mobile Communications Introduction The distinct life of the mobile communications has taken different phases. This can be traced from the 1G to the most rest 4G. G, 2G, 3G and 4G are a wireless phone or a cellular phone standard way of classification based on generations/ cellular phone evolution. This paper is a critical comparison of all these technological generations with an aim of tracking the trend that is followed in the developments.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Technological Generations of Mobile Communications specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Grandpa and Grandma 1G Grandpa and Grandma 1G was the very first generation of wireless technology that originated around 1980’s. The cellular phones of this time were big in size (handbag phones) and used a high power voltage. Communication in the first generation cellular phones was enhanced by use of analog radio waves/ signals; use of radio antennas (a radio transmitter on one end and receiver on the other end. Analogue technology could only accommodate voice communication the passing of analogue signals. While this was the best technological developments at the time, it had a couple of limitations. The first generation wireless technology covered a relatively small area. Communication was only possible between parties of the same nation/within a nation’s boundary’s/ within the grounds of a particular nation (Fendelman). This first generation wireless technology supports only one way communication at a time. For instance the intended recipient has to be calm till the sender finishes talking then he/she can begin answering incase he/she speaks before then, his/her message won’t be delivered. All the above services are possible through a technology that interprets voice calls called circuit switching -Circuit switching is easily distorted by a simple physical noise thus destroying the quality of a conversation. All these limitations le ad the players in the industry to look for more advanced technology which could fill the loopholes in communication (News from Rohde and Schwarz, 2002). 2G – The second generation of the wireless digital technology 1G was later thrown out/replaced by 2G that came with greater and better technological benefits like the additional data services. At this level people could send text messages on top of the voice communication they initially had. The radio signals were digital and the conversations digitally encrypted unlike the initial analog. This therefore allowed the mobile phone services to be passed over a wider area (great service penetration levels).The wireless digital network use brings more voice clarity to the conversation being carried out.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This enhanced intercontinental communications, more privacy in communication as well as storage of communication. The messages sent through this technology could easily be referred to later. The second generation phones are however, costly compared to the first generation wireless cellular phones. Unlike the first wireless technology where communications were only possible within a nation, 2G ventures into a wide area in terms of service coverage area due to the additional roaming facility. 3G – The third wireless telephone / cellular phone generation The second generation is however overthrown by this third cellular phone evolution which uses a wide band width. This big band width in turn came with a more clear voice communication that is almost perfect (very minimal distractions and cases of eavesdropping- a situation where the signals sent are lost to the surrounding environment). Communication in this case is possible through a technology packet switching; a situation where data is addressed like the IP addressing then sent over and on reaching it s destination, its again recollects in the order sent then decoded/ interconnected to have the conversation (News from Rohde and Schwarz, 2002).. 3G wireless services are widely spread and now almost in all parts of the world. 3G has an added advantage of the global roaming facility which allows communication across the world. One can send text messages, video conference, and chat, download 3dimentional games, and talk to any one and anywhere in this world without distractions like they are having real conversation (News from Rohde and Schwarz , 2002). 3G uses a higher band width also a wide band voice channel compared to the 1G and 2G generations which greatly attributes to high voice clarity and people can talk without any disturbance or with very minimal distractions. There is an additional multimedia facility brought about by this third generation cellular phones like very fast communication (conversations and text messaging), video conferencing (hold video meetings with people in different locations), internet (surfing/browsing/online chatting), mobile television (watch television’s favorite programs on phone), video calls (like Skye), multi media messaging service (MMS) (sharing of photos and music), etc are now available on 3G phones (Arshad, Farooq, Shah, 2010)Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Technological Generations of Mobile Communications specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The 3G phones are costly compared to the first and second wireless cellular phone generation. Currently 3G is widely in use. Almost everyone is moving or has moved to 3G technology for its interesting features and high speed wireless service. Despite the numerous advantages to using this kind of phone and very interesting features, 3G wireless telephones however have short battery life compared to the second and first generation phones. Thus the use of this technology is dependent on the proximity to power s upply. In remote areas thus, persons are forced to use less advanced technologies to avoid frustrations. However, some wireless technology users use both technologies concurrently (Arshad, Farooq, Shah, 2010). 3G technology is usually common for users who depend on the wireless communication in internetworking. Most of the service providers carry out promotional advertisements encouraging users to use the technology based on its speed and coverage. 4G The fourth generation wireless telephones / cellular phone service also known as a complete 3G replacement. 4G operates more like 3G much as it is a step up from 3G. It appears to operate in a hopeful state, like providing its clients with very speedy wireless services. Being the new born baby this fourth generation wireless technology is availed in limited places/areas. It’s not widely spread and only in use in very few regions like Japan. 4G is anticipated and designed to deliver very high speed internet and generally high wi reless services. Also a high network capacity-allowing more people to operate/ access its resources simultaneously (Fendelman,). They too have the multimedia added feature but with very clear voice and video output compared to the initial generations just like the normal television. The fourth generation cellular phones are damn expensive (high cost) compared to the previous generations. The costs mentioned here are the installation costs. However, the technological requires less maintenance costs. Similarities All the above mentioned technologies are wireless technologies. They all are able to pass/enhance analog communication. They all can pass voice communications. The first and Second generation covers a relatively small area in terms of geographical boundaries. Each of the technological development has come with increased area coverage than the preceding development.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Both the first and Second generation use a narrow band width, while the third and fourth generation uses wide band width. Both 1G and 2G deal/ are good in voice calls and in the process need to utilize the maximum bandwidth provided (Ashiho, 2003) Conclusion The technological development in the wireless communication has grown from one phase to another. As each phase is introduced, it leads to changes in other industries that depend on this technology for communication and other purposes. It is paramount to note that each of the above technologies has its own specifications. Thus, there is always a need for any firm to have a technician who shall introduce the members of the institutions on how to operate the different technological developments. The ability of a firm to use the most modern technology is for its advantage as this leads to less maintenance costs. The only additional costs in the generational growth are the initial installation costs (Ashiho, 2003). The developments t hat have been discussed in this paper have been enhanced by various firms and individuals. The need for the improvements has always rendered the players in the wireless communication busy with efforts of improving each of the development. While the current technology is viewed by many as perfect, it is expected that a need will arise for the provision of services that it does not offer. Thus, it is arguable to conclude that the development in the wireless communication cannot be optimum. References Arshad, j., Farooq, A., Shah, A., (2010) Evolution and Development Towards 4th Generation (4G) Mobile Communication Systems. Web. Ashiho, L. S. (2003). Mobile Technology: Evolution from 1G to 4G. Web. Fendelman, A. (n.d). Cell Phone Glossary: What is 1G vs. 2G vs. 2.5G vs. 3G vs. 4G? Web. News from Rohde and Schwarz (2002). Measuring the Acoustic Characteristics of 3G Mobile Phones. Web. Peter, K. (n.d). Analysis and Comparison of 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G Telecom Services. Web.

Largest City in Area in the United States

Largest City in Area in the United States Although New York City is the most populous city in the United States, Yakutat, Alaska, is the largest city in the area. Yakutat includes a whopping 9,459.28 square miles (24,499 sq km) of area, composed of 1,808.82 square miles of water area and 7,650.46 square miles of land area (4,684.8 sq km and 19,814.6 sq km, respectively). The city is larger than the state of New Hampshire (the countrys fourth smallest state). Yakutat  had been founded in 1948, but in 1992 the city government was dissolved and it combined with the Yakutat Borough  to become the countrys largest city.  Its now officially known as the  City and Borough of Yakutat.   Location The city lies on the Gulf  of Alaska near the Hubbard Glacier and  is surrounded by or is nearby the  Tongass National Forests, Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, and Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve. Yakutats  skyline is dominated by  Mount St. Elias, the United States second tallest peak. What Folks Do There Yakutat has a population of 601 as of 2016, according to the U.S. Census Bureau. Fishing (both commercial and sport)  is its largest industry. Many types of salmon inhabit the rivers and streams:  steelhead, king (Chinook), sockeye, pink (humpback), and coho (silver). Yakutat hosts a three-day annual tern festival in late May or early June, as the area has one of the largest breeding grounds for  Aleutian terns. The bird is uncommon and hasnt been studied extensively; its winter range wasnt even discovered until the 1980s.  The festival features  birding activities, Native cultural presentations, natural history field trips, art exhibits, and other events. The first Saturday in August is the annual  Fairweather Day  celebration, which is full of live music at Cannon Beach Pavilion. People also come to the city for hiking, hunting (bears, mountain goats, ducks, and geese), and wildlife and nature viewing (moose, eagles, and bears), as the area is along migration patterns for waterfowl, raptors, and shorebirds.   Displacing Other Cities With its incorporation with the borough, Yakutat displaced Sitka, Alaska, as the largest city, which had displaced Juneau, Alaska. Sitka is 2,874 square miles (7,443.6 sq km) and Juneau is 2,717 square miles (7037 sq km). Sitka was the earliest large city, having been formed through the incorporation of the borough and city in 1970. Yakutat is a perfect example of an overbounded city, which refers to a city that has boundaries that extend far beyond its developed area (certainly the glaciers and ice fields in the city wont be developed soon). The Lower 48 Jacksonville, in northeast Florida, is the largest city in area in the contiguous 48 states at 840 square miles (2,175.6 sq km). Jacksonville includes all of Duval County, Florida, with the exception of the beach communities (Atlantic Beach, Neptune Beach, and Jacksonville Beach) and Baldwin. It had a population of 880,619 as of 2016 U.S. Census Bureau estimates. Visitors can enjoy golf, beaches, waterways, the NFLs  Jacksonville Jaguars, and acres and acres of parks (80,000 acres), as it has the largest network of urban parks in the country- more than 300.

Analysis of the Business Environment - Oil Prices Coursework

Analysis of the Business Environment - Oil Prices - Coursework Example There are a number of intrinsic features of oil supply and demand that are significant to any study of crude oil price instability. Important features encompass competing price and income elasticity, a bifurcated and complex supply response, variable data quality, single currency prizing and the interaction of multiple refined oil product market with discrete elasticity of supply and demand. Consequently they do have a shock on elasticity of supply and demand and can have an impact on the wide-ranging elasticity of the crude oil market (Williams 1996). It is generally understood that OPEC (organization of petroleum exporting counties), has the biggest oil reserves in the world, and is accountable for most of the supply and pricing of petroleum products. OPEC is a permanent intergovernmental organization which at present consists of 12 oil producing and exporting countries, as members spread across three continents of America, Asia and Africa (Taylor 2006). The 12 member’s stat es of OPEC are: Algeria, UAE, Angola, Qatar, Ecuador, Kuwait, Iraq, Libya, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran. Causes of Short Run Price Movement of Oil Global oil prices have more than tripled since the year 2003, and volatility has become the rule rather than the expectation. The market price of oil is volatile in the short run. This is because of the following causes: 1. The price elasticity of supply The price elasticity of supply is a measure used to measure the connection between the change in quantity supplied and change in price (Kellick 1995). If supply is elastic, producers can raise output without rise in cost or time delay. If supply is inelastic, firms find it hard to alter production in a given period of time. The price elasticity of supply is equated to the Percentage change in quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in price When the result of this is: More than one, then supply is elastic, Less than one then supply is price inelastic, Zero, then supply is preferably inelastic and When the result is infinity supply is perfectible elastic following a change in demand. Factors That Affect Price Elasticity of Supply of Oil Several factors affect the price elasticity of supply of oil, these are: a) The spare production capacity- the spare production capacity of oil have reduced over the years, this has been one of the major reason for the rapid increase in the prices of crude oil. When there is spare capacity, businesses can expand output easily to meet rising demand pressure on cost (Wakeford, 2010). However, when this spare capacity lacks then the business cannot be able to increase production and would mean that the high prices will persist due to the scarceness of the commodity (Clo, 2000). b) The period involved in the production process – when supply is more price elastic the longer the time period that a firm is permissible to adjust its production levels. In some markets for example in agricultural mark ets, the quick supply is fixed and is determined generally by planting decision made mouths before, and also the climatic condition, which have an effect on the overall production (Gibbs 2010). c) Factors substitution possibility-when factors substitution is achievable at low cost, then supply will be elastic. When factors are highly specialized as in our case here then

Critical Thinking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Critical Thinking - Essay Example From this perspective it is clear that a critical thinking initiative simply makes good business sense. There is little question that the business environment of today is changing rapidly. Through the process of globalization employees of a major organization are exposed to a number of new challenges. Chartrand et al. (2009) emphasized that there are three keys to critical thinking that need to be implemented which are the RED Model. Recognize assumptions- Separate fact from opinion and gather information from a variety of different stakeholders. Evaluate arguments- Although it is difficult not to bring one’s prejudices to an issue, employees need to be taught not to simply jump to a conclusion and weigh all options. Draw Conclusions- After all information is in hand and sound reasoning is applied employees should employ ‘good judgment’ based on the facts. The risks associated with a business environment that does not encourage critical thinking was highlighted by MSNBC (2007) wherein the case Study of Circuit City was presented.